"Wherefore the fruit of thy loins
shall write, and the fruit of the loins of Judah shall write. And that
which shall be written by the fruit of thy loins, and also that which
shall be written by the fruit of the loins of Judah, shall grow together
unto the confounding of false doctrines and laying down of contentions
and establishing peace among the fruit of thy loins and bringing them to
the knowledge of their fathers in the latter days and also to the
knowledge of my covenants, saith the Lord.” (2 Nephi 3:12)[1]
Book of Mormon intertextuality with the Bible is a fairly well
documented phenomenon and has been observed in various modes, including
lengthy quotations and short phrasal allusion. It has also been observed
that Book of Mormon intertextuality often has a clear theological
purpose. For example, in Nicholas Frederick’s discussion of
intertextuality between the Book of Mormon and the Prologue of John, of
the many phrasal allusions he examined, he observed that the most common
function was to reference specific theological content from John in
elucidation of the doctrine shared between the two passages.[3]
It has also been argued that narrative parallels, another type of
intertextuality present in the Book of Mormon, serve to bolster
doctrinal and theological expositions. For example, 1st Nephi’s contains narrative parallels, often supported by phrasal allusions, to the Exodus,[4] the story of Joseph from Genesis,[5] and the story of David and Goliath.[6]
These intertextualities support the theological points of the text,
such as depicting the Americas as a covenant promised land and
demonstrating Nephi’s divinely-appointed leadership despite being the
younger brother. Similar to the above examples, the Ammon narrative
found in Alma 17-20 contains both phrasal allusions, largely to New
Testament passages, and narrative parallels, the most striking of which
are parallels to the raising of Lazarus in John 11. Intertextuality
interlaced throughout the account helps to strengthen a doctrinal
exposition on divinization, or a disciple’s ability to become similar to
and one with Christ, which can be seen as one of the primary themes of
the narrative when one considers both the surface text and the
intertextuality.
Methodology
In the following analysis, I will use Frederick’s proposed methodology from his recent article, Evaluating the Interaction between the New Testament and the Book of Mormon: A Proposed Methodology.[7] Each phrasal allusion will be examined for the following criteria:
· Shared
Terminology – The more exact consecutive words the two passages share,
the stronger the likelihood that one alludes to the other. When two
passages share ideas, but not exact wording, I refer to them as similar
or parallel concepts. Obviously, this latter relationship carries less
weight. In my analysis I will underline shared terminology and bold
parallel concepts.
· Dissimilarity
–The rarer the phrase in the Book of Mormon or Biblical text, the more
likely it is a legitimate example of intertextuality.
· Proximity
– When one allusion occurs in close proximity to one or more other
allusions, it increases the chance that the intertextuality is intended.
· Sequence
– When multiple phrasal allusions are present in a single segment of
text and these allusions all reference the same general segment of text
in the bible, shared sequence between the parallel elements increases
the likelihood that the examples are legitimate.
· Context – Shared context between the two passages also increases the likelihood that an example is valid. Frederick
makes the point that context is the most flexible of the criteria and
therefore the weakest. However, when examining allusions as part of a
large-scale intertextuality, their context takes on increased importance
as they need to reinforce the large scale intertextuality or be viewed
as less meaningful.
Narrative
parallels will be analyzed using a set of criteria similar to
Frederick’s methodology. The proximity and sequence of related parallel
events are logical starting places for analysis. Shared terminology will
also be considered, whether it be shared single terms or more
significant phrasal allusions supporting the narrative parallel.
Frederick
also proposed that the term interaction be used to refer to examples of
Book of Mormon intertextuality with New Testament passages. He
indicates that this is a neutral term which does not make assumptions
about which text is dependent upon the other. I agree that it is unclear
by what process biblical language was carefully interwoven in the Book
of Mormon text. However, I have chosen to use the word allusion to
describe the intertextuality proposed in this paper for several reasons.
First, the phrasal allusions in the Ammon account sometimes organize
disparate biblical passages in impressive thematic fashion, which
suggests dependence of the Book of Mormon on the New Testament. Second,
like Book of Mormon quotations of the Old and New Testament passages,
the phrasal allusions in the Ammon account appear highly reliant on the
King James translation. Finally, examples of intertextuality examined
below sometimes appear to purposefully reference doctrine or events
found in the referenced biblical passage but not readily apparent in the
shared terminology. All of this points to, at least in the English text
of the Ammon account, Book of Mormon dependence on and reference to the
New Testament.
Book of Mormon Divinization
Divinization in the Book of Mormon is most succinctly defined in
Moroni 7:48, which states that “true followers” of Christ can “become
the sons of God” and “be like him.” The phrase “become the sons of God”
is likely an allusion to John 1:12,[8][9]
which reads “But as many as received him, to them gave he power to
become the sons of God, even to them that believe on his name.” In
the Book of Mormon, this power comes by the reception of the Holy
Ghost. Perhaps, the strongest illustration of this doctrine is found in
chapter 19 of Third Nephi, in which Christ’s chosen disciples receive
the Holy Ghost. While praying to receive Following that event, Christ
prays to the Father, thanks him that the disciples have received the
Holy Ghost, and implies that this has resulted in him being “in them” as
the Father is in him and that they are “one” (3 Nephi 19:23). This
spiritual unity and likeness is then demonstrated. The text states, “And
his countenance did smile upon them, and the light of his countenance
did shine upon them. And behold, they were as white as the countenance
and also the garments of Jesus. And behold, the whiteness thereof did
exceed all whiteness; yea, even there could be nothing upon earth so
white as the whiteness thereof” (3 Nephi 19:25). In other words, the
disciples, through the reception of the Holy Ghost and the presence of
Jesus Christ, reached a kind of apotheosis.
In other places in the Book of Mormon, the reception of the Holy Ghost
is presented with somewhat less blatant divinization, but the reception
of divine power, knowledge, or likeness is still present. For example,
chapters 31 and 32 of Second Nephi state that after a “baptism of fire”
and reception of the Holy Ghost, one gains the ability to speak with the
“tongue of angels,” by which the initiate can know “all things” he or
she should do (2 Nephi 31:13; 32:2-3). Angels are most often a
manifestation of the divine in the Book of Mormon, suggesting that this
ability is an evidence of divinization. Angels also play a role in the
divinization of Nephi and Lehi. In miraculous delivery from prison,
Nephi and Lehi are surrounded by fire and ministered to by angels
(Helaman 5:24, 36, 38-39), similar to events preceding the divinization
of the disciples in Third Nephi (3 Nephi 19:13-14). As they speak with
the angels, Nephi and Lehi’s faces “shine exceedingly, even as the faces
of angels” (Helaman 5:36). The fire preceding the angels’ presences is
most likely representative of the Holy Ghost, and fire’s association
with the Holy Ghost is made explicit in verse 45.[10]
The verse also states that the Lamanites are filled with the Holy Ghost
and can speak “marvelous words.” Other examples of divinization in
result of the Holy Ghost include Nephi’s shocking of Laman and Lemuel
while being full of the “Spirit” and “power of God” (1 Nephi 17:47-48,
52-54), Abinadi’s shining face in result of the Spirit (Mosiah 13:5),
the various gifts of the Spirit which come by the “Spirit of Christ”
(Moroni 10:9-17), and the ability to learn all things through the Holy
Ghost (2 Nephi 32:5, Moroni 10:5).[11]
Ammon and Christ
The Ammon account contains an exposition of divinization, which is
also best explained through the reception of the Holy Ghost. At the
beginning of the account, Ammon and his fellow missionaries receive
instruction from “the Lord,” who is arguably Christ in Book of Mormon
theology.[12]
Part of that instruction states, “Yet ye shall be patient in
long-suffering and afflictions, that ye may shew forth good examples
unto them in me.” (Alma 17:11). The final prepositional phrase, “in me,”
suggests that Ammon will be somehow unified with Christ or God in his
service to the Lamanites. Later, Ammon fleshes out this idea when he
states, “And a portion of that Spirit dwelleth in me, which giveth me
knowledge and also power according to my faith and desires which is in
God” (Alma 18:35). This passage invokes the prepositional phrases “in
me” and “in God” in demonstration of Ammon’s unity with God, and the
text makes it clear that it is the Spirit dwelling in him that gives him
divine power.[13]
Similarly, Ammon describes power “in” him as he prepares to defend
Lamoni’s flocks (Alma 17:29). Ammon’s divinization is further evidenced
by the effectiveness of his power, which is so great that Lamoni comes
to believe that Ammon is the Great Spirit, the Lamanite’s all-knowing
God-like being.
While Ammon’s power is evidence of divinization, a primary aspect of
divinization, as described in Moroni 7:48 and demonstrated in Third
Nephi 19, is similarity to and union with Christ. Significantly, Ammon’s
divinization is evidenced by a likeness to Christ that is realized
through phrasal allusions. These allusions have Ammon speaking Christ’s
words or fulfilling roles Christ ascribes to himself. An impressive
example of Ammon speaking Christ’s words comes as Ammon assures the
queen that Lamoni will awake.
Alma 19:8-9
8 And he saith unto the queen: He is not dead, but he sleepeth in God; and on the morrow he shall rise again. Therefore bury him not. 9 And Ammon saith unto her: Believest thou this? And she said unto him: I have had no witness save thy word and the word of our servants. Nevertheless I believe that it shall be according as thou hast said.
John 11:8, 23, 26-27
11 These things said he: and after that he saith unto them, Our friend Lazarus sleepeth; but I go, that I may awake him out of sleep.
23 Jesus saith unto her, Thy brother shall rise again…
26 And whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die. Believest thou this? 27 She saith unto him, Yea, Lord: I believe that thou art the Christ, the Son of God, which should come into the world.
Clearly, Alma 19:8-9 shares a fair amount of exact terminology with
John 11. I will clarify that I have included the phrase “she saith/said
unto him” only because of its direct proximity to “believest thou this?”
In terms of the phrase’s dissimilarity to other phrases in the Bible or
Book of Mormon, “believest thou this?” occurs only once in the New
Testament and twice in the Book of Mormon.[14]
The strength of this this particular allusion not only rests on the
nearly unique combination of three words, but also on their inclusion of
the same punctuation and independence as a phrase. The other use of the
question is in Alma 22:10 with Aaron as speaker. However, the entire
string, “Believest thou this? And she said unto him” is entirely unique
to Ammon 19:9, and John 11:26 provides a near perfect match. “I believe
that” only occurs twice in New Testament and three times in the Book of
Mormon. One of the other occurrences is Alma 18:29 and is part of the
Ammon narrative, and the other is notably from Alma 22:11 in response to
Aaron’s use of the question “believest thou this.” “Shall rise again”
is still somewhat uncommon with five occurrences in the New Testament
and three in the Book of Mormon. Finally, “sleepeth” occurs seven times
throughout the old and new testament. However, it only occurs once in
the Book of Mormon. All of the phrases and the single word sleepeth
prove to be at least fairly unique creating a strong case for biblical
allusion. The correct sequence and proximity of these four phrases
significantly increase the likelihood of allusion. Finally, the extreme
similarity of context lends further support. Ammon and Jesus are both
giving assurances to female character that their beloved male family
member will rise from either death or near-death. “Believest thou this”
is especially impressive as it comes at the same moment in the
conversations as the male speakers end their assurances.
Notably, Ammon’s words makes an additional allusion to Christ’s words in the verse directly following the above exchange.
Alma 19:9-10
9 And Ammon saith unto her: Believest thou this? And she said unto him: I have had no witness save thy word and the word of our servants. Nevertheless I believe that it shall be according as thou hast said. 10 And Ammon said unto her: Blessed art thou because of thy exceeding faith. I say unto thee, woman, there has not been such great faith among all the people of the Nephites.
Luke 7:2,7,9
2 And a certain centurion’s servant, who was dear unto him, was sick, and ready to die…
7 Wherefore neither thought I myself worthy to come unto thee: but say in a word, and my servant shall be healed…
9 When Jesus heard these things, he marvelled at him, and turned him about, and said unto the people that followed him, I say unto you, I have not found so great faith, no, not in Israel.
The shared terminology combined with clear parallel concepts, all in
correct sequence, gives this example some serious teeth. Further, the
phrase “so/such great faith” only occur twice in the Bible, the other
occurrence being the parallel account in Matthew 8. It also only occurs
twice in the Book of Mormon, the other being Christ’s words in 3 Nephi
19:35, which uses a similar formula. The single term, “word,” with its
correct sequence, strengthens the above allusion. I chose Luke 7 over
Matthew 8 because Luke’s context better matches that of Alma 18. In Luke
7:2 we are told that the sick servant is “ready to die,” making his
healing all the more comparable to Lamoni’s promised awakening from
near-death.
One more example comes earlier in the narrative. After Ammon is
assigned to shepherd and the flocks have been scattered, Ammon rallies
the servants of King Lamoni to help protect the flock. He addresses them
with what are readily seen as Christ’s words.
Alma 17:28, 31
28 Now the servants … began to weep exceedingly, saying: Behold, our flocks are scattered already…
31 And it came to pass that he flattered them by his words, saying: My brethren, be of good cheer,
and let us go in search of the flocks; and we will gather them together
and bring them back unto the place of water. And thus we will restore
the flocks unto the king and he will not slay us.
John 16:32-33
32 Behold, the hour cometh, yea, is now come, that ye shall be scattered,
every man to his own, and shall leave me alone: and yet I am not alone,
because the Father is with me. 33 These things I have spoken unto you,
that in me ye might have peace. In the world ye shall have tribulation:
but be of good cheer; I have overcome the world.
I have included “scattered” from Alma 17:28 here because it perhaps
clarifies the exact allusion. The primary shared terminology here is “be
of good cheer,” a four word phrase that occurs seven times in the New
Testament and twice in the Book of Mormon. Notably, this occurrence
makes Ammon the only other Book of Mormon speaker to use the phrase
besides Christ. In the New Testament, five of the occurrences are
attributed to Christ, and two are attributed to Paul, both of which
happen within a four verse span in Acts 27:22-25. It is the proximity of
the the term scatter and the matching sequence of the two elements that
makes this passage a likely allusion to John 16:32-33 specifically. The
shared context of a spiritual shepherd comforting his metaphorical
flock is also worth noting.
Other allusions can be found that place Ammon is roles prescribed to
Christ. For example, After Ammon has miraculously defended the flock and
servants, King Lamoni, who now believes Ammon is the Great Spirit, is
hesitant to ask Ammon about it. One of Lamoni’s servants requests that
Ammon stay on Lamoni’s behalf, and the servant’s words potentially
allude to multiple New Testament passages. All of these potential target
passages are found in John, and all of them address Christ.
Alma 18:13
And one of the king’s servants said unto him: Rabbanah, which is being interpreted powerful or great king—considering their kings to be powerful—and thus he said unto him: Rabbanah, the king desireth thee to stay.
John 1:36-38
36 And looking upon Jesus as he walked, he saith, Behold the Lamb of God! 37 And the two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus. 38 Then Jesus turned, and saw them following, and saith unto them, What seek ye? They said unto him, Rabbi, (which is to say, being interpreted, Master,) where dwellest thou?
John 20:16
16 Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say, Master.
In both cases the shared terminology here is a long but inexact
phrase. Alma 18:13 and John 1:39 clearly share the most terminology,
making them a strong candidate for biblical allusion. The close match
between Rabboni and Rabbanah and their dissimilarity to other words,
excepting Rabbi, that occur in the Book of Mormon and New Testament
suggest that the passage is also potentially alluding to John 20:16. [15]
The similar concepts of Master/King that follows is simply a
continuation of the original allusion, so there is no real case for
proximity or shared sequence of multiple examples. Depending how the
phrase is parsed, it lends different levels of dissimilarity. Using the
tightest parameters, which is the entire phrase “said/saith unto him,
Rabbi/Rabboni/Rabbanah, which is,” there are only the two above
occurrences in the New Testament and the single occurrence in the Book
of Mormon. Using the loosest set of parameters, looking for only the
words Rabbi, Rabboni, or Rabbanah, there are seven passages in the New
Testament that use one of these terms and only the single Book of Mormon
passage in Alma 18. Of the seven New Testament passages, it is notable
that all but one refer to Christ. The exception, John 6:25, refers to
John the Baptist. Returning to the two strongest candidates given above,
the context is clearly related in both instances. In John 20, Mary,
after mistaking Christ for the gardener, realizes he is the risen Lord
and calls him Rabboni. On the other hand, Lamoni mistakes Ammon for God,
and his servant calls Ammon Rabbanah. In John 1:38, disciples of John
the Baptist are addressing Jesus as Rabbi just following John’s
declaration that Jesus is the Messiah. This passage, like John 20:16, is
about recognition of Jesus identity, and both John 1:38 and 20:16 have
an inversional contextual relationship with the misidentification of
Ammon as the Great Spirit or God in Alma 18.
It is possible that John 1:49 is also implicated by the above allusion. It reads, “Nathanael answered and saith unto him, Rabbi, thou art the Son of God; thou art the King of
Israel.” In terms of shared terminology, of the seven New Testatament
passages that use either the term Rabbi or Rabboni, this is the third
strongest candidate for allusion and the only of the group to share the
term “King,” which occurs in close proximity to and in correct sequence
with the initial phrase. Several other allusions to passages in John 1
that occur in this part of the Ammon account will be explored later in
the paper, and their proximity adds some merit to this potential
allusion. The context of this example, like the two previously analysed,
also addresses Christ’s identity.
Another allusion that puts Ammon in a Christ-like role comes during
Ammon and company’s preparation to split up and enter Lamanite lands.
Ammon ministers to his fellow missionaries, and the text alludes to
Christ’s words in Matthew.
Alma 17:18, 25
18 Now Ammon being the chief among them, or rather he did administer
unto them, he departed from them, after having blessed them according
to their several stations, having imparted the word of God unto them, or
administered unto them before his departure. And thus they took their
several journeys throughout the land.
25 But Ammon saith unto him: Nay, but I will be thy servant. Therefore Ammon became a servant to king Lamoni.
Matthew 20:26-28
26 But it shall not be so among you: but whosoever will be great among you, let him be your minister; 27 And whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your servant: 28 Even as the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
Shared terminology here consists of an inexact single term,
“minister/administer,” and an inexact three word string, “chief among
them/you.” Impressively, the word string “chief among” occurs only once
in the Old Testament, twice in the New Testament, and once in the Book
of Mormon. However, only the passage in Matthew 20 shares the
combination of the elements “administer” and “chief among” The
appropriate proximity of the two elements and their correct sequence
help establish the allusion. In terms of sequence, the first occurrence
of “minister” in Matthew 20:26 is only bolded because here is a noun and
not a verb as the later occurrence which matches the use in Alma 17:19.
I also included the term “servant” as it is included in Alma 17 some
verses later as a major plot point. The context here is rather different
as Ammon is demonstrating actions and a role that Christ’s words
recommend. However, a clear connection between Ammon and Christ is
created through Christ indication he is the exemplary minister or
servant.
A final example can be found during Ammon’s defensive actions, where
the text alludes to Mary’s words following angel Gabriel’s annunciation.
Alma 7:37
…And he caused them to flee by the strength of his arm.
Luke 1:51
He hath shewed strength with his arm; he hath scattered the proud in the imaginations of their hearts.
The shared terminology is three words with the variable connector
of/with. The shared terminology is not terribly impressive, but its
dissimilarity creates a strong case. This three word combination is only
used once in the Book of Mormon, once in the New Testament, and once in
the Old Testament. The Old Testament example, Isaiah 53:12, does use
the “of” like Alma 7. However, the example in Luke also shares the idea
of causing a group to scatter or flee. The context does not appear to be
shared. The allusion strengthens the connection between Christ and
Ammon as the passage in Luke describes actions attributed to Christ.
Mary is reacting to the announcement of Christ’s impending birth, and
she specifies that she is speaking of her “God’ and “Savior” (Luke
1:47). The passage equates God and Christ, and so Christ can be seen as
the person acting in verse 51.
Lamoni’s Awakening and Lazarus’ Raising
The above phrasal allusions place Ammon in Christ’s shoes, speaking
his words or fulfilling roles prescribed to him. Narrative parallels
also illustrate Ammon’s divinized Christ-like status. The strongest of
these is a large scale intertextuality between Lamoni’s awakening and
Lazarus’ rising from the dead. Following is a table outlining the
narrative parallels between these two accounts (apologies that the table didn't transfer correctly into the blog format).
Alma 18:42-43
Lamoni falls to the ground as if dead.
Alma 19:2-10
Ammon assures the queen that Lamoni will rise. The queen responds positively.
Alma 19:11-16
Ammon's promise is fulfilled and
Lamoni, who was mistaken for dead, rises from his sleep, but the
experience is extended as he falls to the earth again along with others.
Alma 19:16-18
Abish, the queen's servant, causes a multitude to assemble.
Alma 19:19-24
Ammon's life is threatened and he is miraculously saved.
Alma 19:25-33
Everyone rises.
|
John 11
Lazarus is sick and dies.
John 11:20-27
Christ assures Martha that Lazarus will rise. Martha responds positively.
John 11:38-45
Christ raises Lazarus from the dead.
John 11:28-35 (out of order)
Mary, Martha's sister, comes and a group of Jews follow her.
John 11:47-54
The chief priests plot to kill Jesus. He evades them.
|
Looking at the two accounts in summary, there are striking
similarities between each set of parallel events, and all events in this
segment of the Ammon narrative have parallel events in John 11 with the
exception of the final group awakening in Alma 19, for which there is
no parallel equivalent. That being said, the
group rising can be seen as a climactic repetition of Lamoni’s return
from visionary sleep, so it still functions as a logical expansion of
the intertextuality. In terms of proximity, the events in Alma
take place over 35 verses and the events in John take place over 54
verses. In other words, both sets of events occur within relatively
short and comparable lengths of text. Sequence also lines up well with
the exception that the parallel between Abish and Mary is out of
sequence with the other events in John 11.
A closer examination of this set of narrative parallels also proves
fruitful. There are more specific narrative allusions along with
parallel concepts and shared terminology that support the
intertextuality. For example, the queen’s conversation with Ammon lends
several important details paralleled in John 11. In Alma 19:4, four she
tells Ammon that she was told he is “a prophet of a holy God and that thou hast power to do many mighty works in his name,”
inferring that he has power to help her husband. This is in parallel to
John 11:21-22, where Martha infers Christ can raise Lazarus from the
dead. She says to Jesus, “if thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. But I know, that even now, whatsoever thou wilt ask of God, God will give it thee.”
The following verse in Alma 19 offers further details.
Alma 19:5
5 Therefore if this is the case, I would that ye should go in and see
my husband, for he has been laid upon his bed for the space of two days and two nights. And some say that he is not dead; but others say that he is dead and that he stinketh and that he ought to be placed in the sepulchre. But as for myself, to me he doth not stink.
John 11:38-39
38 Jesus therefore again groaning in himself cometh to the grave. It was a cave, and a stone lay upon it. 39 Jesus said, Take ye away the stone. Martha, the sister of him that was dead, saith unto him, Lord, by this time he stinketh: for he hath been dead four days.
The shared terminology, “he stinketh,” is unique, only occurring once
in the Book of Mormon and once in the New Testament. The proposed
sepulcher for Lamoni is paralleled by Lazarus’ cave tomb and stone
cover,[16] and the
phrase, “two days and two nights,” breaks what is otherwise a three day
scheme into two units of two creating a possible allusion to the “four
days” in John. While the sequence of presentation does not match,[17] the proximity of the two or three elements in both texts is notable.
Alma 19:6 goes on to state that a “dark veil of unbelief” was “being cast away from [Lamoni’s] mind.” These concepts find parallels in John 11:44 in the “napkin,” which covers Lazarus’ “face” and Jesus commands to be “loose[d].” Alma 19:6’s subsequent description of “light” filling Lamoni’s mind and dispelling a “cloud of darkness” is paralleled by Jesus statement on spiritual light and darkness in John 11:9-10. He says, “If any man walk in the day, he stumbleth not, because he seeth the light of this world. But if a man walk in the night, he stumbleth, because there is no light in him.”
The clear allusions in Alma 19:8-9 to John 11 have been discussed
above, and they strongly support the overall narrative parallel. To
quickly review, Ammon describes Lamoni as sleeping, matching Christ’s
description of Lazarus in 11:8. Ammon promises that Lamoni “shall rise
again” echoing Christ’s promise that Lazarus “shall rise again” in
11:23. Most signficantly, there is quite a bit of shared terminology
surrounding and including Ammon and Christ’s questions, “Believe thou
this?” and the phrase, “I believe that,” from queen and Martha’s
responses (11:26-27).
Later after Lamoni has risen the first time and the whole group, there
are parallel concepts in the description of Abish gathering the people.
Alma 19:17 describes Abish, saying she “ran forth from house to house.” Similarly, in John 11:29 Mary arises “quickly” and verse 31 comes “hastily”
to the grave. As described in the overview both of their actions result
in a group of people gathering at the scene of the action.
In all of these actions a consistent set of character relationships
can be established. Ammon’s fills the role of Christ, except in his own
falling and rising, an exception that will be addressed later on. Lamoni
clearly parallels Lazarus. The queen serves as Martha, and Abish serves
as Mary. Gender is consistent in each of the pairs. Relationships
between the characters also function in parallel. Lamoni is husband to
the queen as Lazarus is brother to Martha. Both of these are familial
relationships. Abish is the servant of the queen, a potentially close
relationship in parallel to the sisterhood of Mary and Martha. Abish is
already converted already and the queen follows consistent with Mary’s
early concern for spiritual things in contrast to Martha in Luke
10:39-42. Lastly, a parallel can be seen in Lamoni’s and Lazarus’ names.
Both names are three syllables, start with the letters La, and are of
comparable length. By itself, this similarity would not be notable, but
in conjunction with the many other parallels, this similarity is worth
mentioning.
The evidence laid out above points convincingly towards an
intertextuality between the raisings of Lamoni and Lazarus. The account
of Lamoni’s awakening contains five distinct narrative allusions to
events in John 11, all of which take place within convincing proximity
in both texts and mostly in matching sequence. If
Ammon’s question, “believe thou this,” and the queen’s response are
broken into two separate allusions, which is justified as their target
passages are separated, then there are four significant phrasal
allusions, three of which happen in matching sequence with their target
passages. There are also two notable shared single terms, one of which
is completely unique in the Book of Mormon and Bible to Alma 19 and John
11, and eight parallel concepts. Significantly, all of the phrasal
allusions, both shared single terms, and seven of the eight parallel
concepts happen within a five verse span (Alma 19:4-9), creating a
focused, strong, and obvious set. Beyond these, there are also four
consistent character relationships that further establish the narrative
intertextuality. Finally, this intricate set of allusions is
accompanied by five other significant phrasal allusions in the
surrounding text, which were outlined in the previous section, all
establishing Ammon as a parallel to Christ. One of the more significant
of these phrasal is found in the Alma 19:10, the verse directly
following the previously mentioned five verse span rich with allusions
to the Lazarus’ account, and the immediate proximity of these allusions
strengthens the overall argument. The intentionality of all of this is
rather undisguised, and it clearly depicts Ammon as a “true follower” or
divinized disciple, who speaks Christ’s words and wields his power.
Ammon as the Good Shepherd
Another set of narrative parallels can be seen in Ammon’s role as a
shepherd. The events surrounding the scattering of Lamoni’s flocks and
Ammo’s defense of them can be seen as narrative allusions to Christ’s
teaching about the true shepherd in John 10:1-18. The Lamanites who
scatter the flock parallel both the stranger, the wolf, and the thief,
and the servants who do not defend the flock parallel the hirelings who
flee from the wolf (Alma 17:27, John 10:5, 10, 12-13). Ammon’s defense
of the flocks, in which he risks his life, parallels the good shepherd
or Christ, who lays down his life for the sheep (Alma 17:33-38, John
10:11, 15).
The description of the attacking Lamanites contain a group of allusions that support the narrative intertextuality.
Alma 17:35
35 Therefore they did not fear Ammon, for they supposed that one of their men could slay him according to their pleasure, for they knew not that the Lord had
promised Mosiah that he would deliver his sons out of their hands,
neither did they know any thing concerning the Lord; therefore they
delighted in the destruction of their brethren, and for this cause they stood to scatter the flocks of the king.
John 10:10, 12
10 The thief cometh not, but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy: I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly.
12
But he that is an hireling, and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep
are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth: and
the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the sheep.
The
shared terminology here consists of an inexact three word string, an
inexact shared term, and a single parallel concept. Despite the weakness
of the shared terminology, the proximity of the elements and their
matching sequence help to make the group more convincing. The
dissimilarity of the phrase “scattereth the sheep” and the variation
“scatter the flocks” also strengthens the group. Searching all
combinations of ‘scatter/scattereth the flock/sheep’ lends four exact
matches in the Book of Mormon and only one example in the Old Testament
and one in the New Testament.[19]
Of the two possibilities, John 10 is the more relevant passage due to
the additional parallel concept of slay/kill and the additional
narrative parallel between Alma 17 and John 10 of Ammon/Christ defending
the flock, which there is no case for in the Old Testament example.
Another aspect of the narrative creates further connections between
the two texts. Though at first Lamoni’s servants appear to be the
hirelings who do not defend the flock, they are quickly adopted as
Ammon’s metaphorical flock. He both leads them and protects them in
direct parallel to Christ’s description of the good shepherd.[20] A set of allusions help to support this narrative parallel.
Alma 17:29, 32
29 …that I may win the hearts of these my fellow servants, that I may lead them to believe in my words.
32 And it came to pass that they went in search of the flocks; and they did follow Ammon…
John 10:3
3 To him the porter openeth; and the sheep hear his voice: and he calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out. 4 And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him: for they know his voice.
The shared terminology here is a pair of inexact two word phrases, and
a similar concept. The shared terminology is fairly common. However,
when the words “lead” and “follow” are combined there is only one New
Testament passage that uses lead and follow together in direct
correlation. The Book of Mormon uses the combination in two passages.
The other is in the description of the Lamanites following the Nephites
towards the land of Zarahemla (Alma 58:19, 24), and clearly, the context
is very different. The proximity of the three elements help to
establish this allusion to John 10:3, and the context is a closely
related in the portrayal of the servants as Ammon’s flock.
A Book of Mormon allusion outside of the Ammon narrative is worth
mentioning here because of its strong similarity to previous examples.
Alma 5:41 reads, “Therefore if a man bringeth forth good works, he hearkeneth unto the voice of the good shepherd and he doth follow him.”
The concepts of good shepherd, listening to a voice, and the phrase
“follow him” all point to a likely biblical allusion to the passages in
John 10. The context of Alma 5 is fairly different, but the doctrine
being developed here is highly relevant to the portrayal of Ammon as a
type of Christ.
It
could also be noted that the phrase “I am come that they might have
life” from John 10:10 is paralleled by Ammon’s general actions. While
protecting the flocks of the king he is also protecting the lives of his
metaphorical sheep, the king’s servants (Alma 18:16). Ammon’s actions
not only save them from the Lamanite attackers but also from Lamoni’s
punishment. Lastly, Ammon risks his own life somewhat similar to
Christ’s declaration in John 10:15, “As the Father knoweth me, even so
know I the Father: and I lay down my life for the sheep.”
Ammon and John the Baptist
As if to clarify the doctrine of divinization, The Book of Mormon text
makes it clear that despite Ammon’s powers, he is not God. After Lamoni
has mistakenly identified Ammon as the Great Spirit, Ammon sets the
record straight. In this section of narrative, the text also seeks to
clarify Ammon’s role as subservient to Christ, and it does this through
allusions which create a connection between Ammon and John the Baptist,
one of which occurs directly within Lamoni and Ammon’s discussion about
Ammon’s identity.
Alma 18:18-19
18 Now when the king had heard these words, he marveled again; for he
beheld that Ammon could discern his thoughts. But notwithstanding this,
king Lamoni did open his mouth and said unto him: Who art thou? Art thou that Great Spirit which knows all things? 19 Ammon answered and said unto him: I am not.
John 1:19-20
19 And this is the record of John, when the Jews sent priests and Levites from Jerusalem to ask him, Who art thou? 20 And he confessed, and denied not; but confessed, I am not the Christ. [21]
The shared terminology is two three word phrases. The phrase “I am
not” is fairly common, but the phrase “who art thou,” while used many
times throughout the Bible, is only used three times in the Book of
Mormon. In combination, the two phrases only appear together once in the
Book of Mormon and once in the Bible as cited above. Both proximity and
sequence support the allusion. The context is also very clearly
related. The Jews are questioning whether John the Baptist is the
messiah in parallel to Lamoni’s question whether or not Ammon is the
Great Spirit.
A second allusion during the Ammon and Lamoni’s conversation also supports the connection between Ammon and John the Baptist.
Alma 18:33-34
33 And king Lamoni saith: I believe all these things which thou hast spoken. Art thou sent from God? 34 Ammon saith unto him: I am a man…
John 1:6
6 There was a man sent from God, whose name was John.
This example’s shared terminology is short, particularly with the
text’s separation of the word man. However, the phrase “sent from God”
is somewhat unique as it is only used two times in the New Testament and
three times in the Book of Mormon. Of these uses, only the two passages
cited here use the word “man” in conjunction with the phrase “sent from
God.” Besides having appropriate proximity within these two verses,
this passage’s proximity to other allusions to John 1 make it
increasingly likely.[22]
While the sequence does not support the allusion, the matching context
does, which consists of men being questioned whether they are the text’s
functional equivalent to God.
The two examples discussed above help define Ammon’s role. Like John
the Baptism, Ammon is an important and God-sent messenger. With Ammon’s
commission comes divine power, and a unity with Christ that is
demonstrated in Ammon’s words and actions. However, like John the
Baptist, he is not the Christ; he is still just a man. A
different rhetorical emphasis of this point seems to also be present in
Ammon’s statement “I am a man.” This phrase, which he also says in Alma
18:17, appears to be a wordplay on his name. Combined, the two words, “a
man,” closely resemble the name Ammon. It is also notable that the name
Ammon can be substituted. The text then appropriately reads, “I am
[Ammon].” Leading up to Ammon and Lamoni’s conversation, Ammon is
referred to as a “man” four times (Alma 18:3, 8, 10), and in another
instance, Lamoni states his assumption that Ammon is “more than a man”
(Alma 18:2). Further uses of the term man give more definition to the
relationship between God and man. Alma 8:34 states that “man was created
in the image of God,” directly following and qualifying Ammon’s
statement that he is a man. This idea is inverted into the condescension
of God in Alma 19:13, which states that the Redeemer will “be born of a
woman,”[23]
adding another link in the relationship between man and God. In this
manner the text builds part of the definition of divinization, both the
boundary line between man and God and the connections between them, into
Ammon’s name.
An allusion found in Lamoni’s comments after rising from his vision
add another layer of meaning to the relationship between God and man.
Alma 19:13
…For as sure as thou livest, behold, I have seen my Redeemer, and he
shall come forth and be born of a woman, and he shall redeem all mankind
who believe on his name.
John 1:12
12 But as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God, even to them that believe on his name.
The phrase “believe on his name,” an exact four word match, occurs a
number of times in the Book of Mormon, but it only occurs once in the
New Testament making the allusion clear.[24]
This phrase appears again in Alma 19:36 with a similar sentiment, and
the repetition helps rhetorically emphasize its importance and the
author’s purposeful use of the allusion. Its proximity to other
allusions to the Gospel of John just a few verses prior is also notable.
In terms of context, the theology is the common thread. As explained
above, John 1:12 teaches that all those who believe in Christ can become
“sons of God.” This elevated status is a type of divinization, and the
repeated allusion helps clarify and emphasize the idea that man can
fulfill the potential of his own creation, becoming more like God.
This nuanced relationship between God and man plays an integral role
in one of Joseph Smith’s unpublished revelation dating to 1832. The
revelation gives names for God, the Son of God, man, and angels in the
“pure language.” They are Awman, Son Awman, Sons Awman, and Awmans
Anglo-men. Each name is given further definition. Awman is “the being
which made all things in all its parts.” Son Awman is “the greatest of
all the parts of Awman which is the God-head, the firstborn.” Sons Awman
are “the human family, the children of men the greatest parts of Awman,
Save the Son Awman.” Finally, Awmans Anglo-men are “Awman’s ministering
Servants sanctified who are sent forth from heaven sent forth from
heaven to minister for or to Sons Awman, the greatest parts Awman save
Sons-Awman Son-Awman.” Similar to the Ammon narrative, all of these
parts are connected, so much so that they each bear the name Awman.
Bruce R. Mckonkie related the name Awman to Moses 6:57, a verse dictated
in 1830. The pertinent segment reads, “in the language of Adam, Man of
Holiness is his name, and the name of his Only Begotten is the Son of
Man.” This connection is likely relevant as there is a similar though
partial list structure, similarities in the names,[25] and reference to the language of Adam. The pure language and the Adamic language are one and the same in the early church.[26]
If Moses 6:57 is directly related to the revelation on pure language,
the name Ahman’s association with the title Man of Holiness would be
closely related to the wordplay in Ammon’s declaration that he is “a
man” and that “man was created in the image of God.” The clear
similarity between the names Ammon and Ahman is also significant. More
particularly, Ahman contains the word man while Ammon contains the
syllable “mon,” which the text imbues with the meaning man. Lastly,
relevant to the doctrinal exposition in the Book of Mormon, mankind or
sons Ahman are defined as both distinct from and part of God, somewhat
similar to the definition fleshed out in the Ammon narrative.
Significantly, similar word play incorporating the word man can be seen in Abish’s name. Matthew Bowen’s article, “Father is a Man: The Remarkable Mention of the Name Abish in Alma 19:16 and its Narrative Context,” convincingly lays out Abish’s role as a counterpart to Ammon...
(I never finished writing this section so I'll sum this up.)
Basically, the hebrew meaning of Abish means "Father is a man",
which according to Bowen, and he argued convincingly, the text uses to
create wordplay with the fact that she had been converted on account of a
vision of her father and to be the spiritual counterpart to Ammon, who
clarifies twice "I am a man," in the conversion of the Lamanites. I
would take it a step further and point to the wordplay I've already
acknowledged in Ammon's name (Ammon = A man). Finally, I would also
argue that her name's hebrew meaning points to the doctrine being
rhetorically unfolded in the Ammon account, which is that God is the
"Man of Holiness" or that the "Father is a man" and that man is his
creation in a father/son relationship with potential for divine growth.
[1] Joseph Smith and Royal Skousen. The Book of Mormon: The Earliest Text
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), Kindle Edition. All Book of
Mormon quotations will be taken from Skousen’s edition of the Book of
Mormon.
[3]
Nicholas Frederick, “Line Within Line: An Intertextual Analysis of
Mormon Scripture and the Prologue of the Gospel of John,” (PhD diss.,
The Claremont Graduate University, 2013), 138.
[4] Mark J. Johnson, “Notes and Communications: The Exodus of Lehi Revisited,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 3/2 (1994): 123–26, accessed April 3, 2016, https://ojs.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/JBMRS/article/viewFile/19728/ 18295; Terrence L. Szink. “Nephi and the Exodus,” in Rediscovering the Book of Mormon, ed. John L. Sorenson et al. (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1991), accessed April 3, 2016, http://publications.mi.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub= 1111&index=6; George S. Tate, “The Typology of the Exodus Pattern in the Book of Mormon,” in Literature of Belief: Sacred Scripture and Religious Experience, ed. Neal E. Lambert (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 1981), accessed April 3, 2016, https://rsc.byu.edu/archived/literature-belief-sacred-scripture-and-religious-experience/13-typology-exodus-pattern-book; Ryan Thomas, “Nahom and Lehi’s Journey through Arabia: A Historical Perspective, Part 1,” Faith Promoting Rumor, September 14, 2015, accessed April 3, 2016, http://www.patheos.com/blogs/ faithpromotingrumor/2015/09/nahom-and-lehis-journey-through-arabia-a-historical-perspective/.
[5]
[6] Ben Mcguire
[8] Frederick, “Line Within Line: An Intertextual Analysis of Mormon Scripture and the Prologue of the Gospel of John,” 128-137.
[9]
The other Book of Mormon use of the phrase, “Become the sons of God,”
is in 3 Nephi 9:17, and the connection between this passage and John
1:12 is so strong that Frederick labels it as a quotation. See Ibid.,
117-118.
[10] Explicit association between fire and the Holy Ghost is also made in 3 Nephi 19:13 and 2 Nephi 31:13.
[11] Knowing all things an attribute of God recognized in the Book of Mormon. See Words of Mormon 1:7, Alma 18:18, and Moroni 7:22.
[12] ??
[13]
In an earlier verse Ammon plans to show his power, or the power that is
“in” him, in defending the kings flocks and servants (Alma 17:29).
[14] If the Old Testament is not mentioned specifically there are no occurrences of that phrase.
[15] Rabonni is emphatic form of the word Rabbi, and Jesus as resurrected Lord in John 20:16 certainly merits the emphasis.
[16] A common definition for sepulcher is a stone burial chamber.
[17] The sequence is actually inverted.
[19] The
example in the Old Testament comes from Jer. 23:1-4, and it is possible
that Jesus is expanding this passage in John 10. Verse 1 reads, “Woe be
unto the pastors that destroy and scatter the sheep of my pasture!
saith the Lord.” The metaphor is people to sheep is the same, and the
warning against false shepherds is similar. The shared terminology of
destroy and scatter is important. It is notable that these two terms are
shared between both Jeremiah and John and John and Alma.
[20] Ammon’s defense of Lamoni’s servants is made explicit in Alma 18:16.
[21]
John the Baptist’s response uses the phrase “I am,” which shares the
source Greek phrase, “ego eimi,” with John 8:58. These passages also
share the initial question “Who are thou” (John 8:25). Christ’s use of
“I am” has long been identified as a possible allusion to the name of
God given to Moses in Exodus. I think it is possible, when considering
the shared elements between John chapters 1 and 8, that the Baptist’s
use of “I am” could be an inversional intratextuality with Christ’s use,
emphasizing the point that John is the forerunner and Christ is “I am”.
[22]
Examples of proximate allusions to John 1 include Alma 18:13/John
1:36-38 and Alma 18:18-19/John 1:19-20, both discussed above. Another
proximate possibility is Alma 18:34/John1:1-4.
[23] Bowen
[24] Frederick, “Line Within Line: An Intertextual Analysis of Mormon Scripture and the Prologue of the Gospel of John,” 90-92.
[25] Ahman contains the word man, and similarly, Son Ahman is a close match to Son of Man.
